UAS

Getting a grasp

Google Doc- Basic Info.

Also see FREE Drone Certification Study Guide: FAA Part 107 sUAS Test or the other videos below.

2020 Part 107 study guide

Google Doc- This guide was focused on common questions found on the 2020 Part 107. The main difference is the current test has questions about night time flights and flights over people.

Google Doc- Basic info needed for test.

Additional Doc- Random guide send in.

2016 Formal Study Guide

The content of the test has changed slightly. If you’re taking the initial Remote Pilot knowledge test (meaning it’ll be your first time taking the Part 107 test to earn a Remote Pilot certificate), expect to now see a question (or a few) involving flying drones at night. Specifically, the test will address aspect of nighttime flying, including:

March 2021: Changes in Part 107 Rules

Removed: Part 107 Recency Test:

• Replaced with: Part 107 Recurrent Training

• Note: If you need to renew your 107 between now and March 1, 2021, just wait for the implementation of the 107 recurrent training portal.

• If you took the online recurrent test during 2020, just take the new recurrent training offered on March 1st, 2021.

• Veteran Pilots: Note this will make forgetting information easier. Make sure to stay on top of your info by flying. Fly often and in numerous environments. Challenge your knowledge at home and stay involved with a community.

Removed: Need for Night Time Waivers:

As of March 2021, you will no longer need to apply for a night waiver to fly beyond civil twilight:

• Drone pilots will still need to attach a strobe for civil twilight flights into the night. Remember they must be visible for 3 statute miles. Remember to place the unit on the top of the aircraft, not the bottom so other pilots can see you.

• Instead of filing for waivers, pilots will be trained on Night Time Operations questions during their recurrent training.

New Part 107 Pilots Will Have More Part 107 Questions

Topics that you will be tested on include:

• Night Illusions, Limited Depth Perception, and solutions

• Aircraft Lighting Requirements

• Landing and Takeoff Requirements

• Crew Requirements

• Aircraft Avoidance Protocols and Emergency Maneuvers.

March 2023: Changes in Part 107 Rules

Removed Part 107 Flight Over People Waivers

• Another new Part 107 drone rule eliminates the need for the flight over people’s waivers. Avid drone pilots will remember our Podcast, foreshadowing what was to come with the flight over people, and we were not that far off.

• As of March 2023, the FAA will have 4 categories to fly over people. These categories represent different sizes of drones and what is possible for each aircraft. As of right now, a DJI Mini 2 aircraft, with propellers could fly over people without any additional nod or approval from the FAA. Yet, Mini 2 would have to broadcast RID to work, which we believe DJI will update Occusync to work.

Categories of aircraft that can fly over people include:

Category 1: Aircraft weighing less than .55lbs and has prop cages+ RID ready.

• No FAA-accepted Means of Compliance (MOC) or Declaration of Compliance (DOC) required

Category 2: The drone must not cause 11 lbs of Kinetic Energy upon impact with a human. If you’re wondering if your drone will comply with this rule, check out this kinetic energy calculator. Did this 11 lbs of kinetic energy come from the Virginia Tech tests, which showed that most drones are safe to fly over people… at least the small ones?

• Must have prop cages

• Requires FAA accepted means of compliance and FAA declaration of compliance required.

Category 3: The drone must not cause more than 25 lbs of Kinetic Energy upon impact with a human.

• Must have prop cages

• Requires FAA-accepted means of compliance and FAA-accepted declaration of compliance

Category 4: Aircraft must have an airworthiness certificate issued under Part 21 of FAA regulations

Added Flight Over Moving Vehicles Subject to Categories of Flight Over People

• The FAA addressed the numerous concerns of flight over moving vehicles as most of the industry stated that routine operations were indeed safe, with specific circumstances. The FAA will allow routine flight over moving vehicles, but not sustained flight. The drone pilot must be transversing unless the operation is in a “restricted access area.”

• The catch: In order to have routine flights over moving vehicles, your drone must meet the requirements of the categories stated above.

• Once again, this showcased the value of a drone like the Mini 2. Which will be able to fly over moving vehicles without any FAA-accepted means of compliance.

Google Doc- 2024 sample questions with answers highlighted.

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Thermal Imaging

• The technique of using the heat given off by an object to produce an image of it or to locate it

• Radiation Pictures, Not Temp Pictures

What impacts thermal imaging

• What the object is made of

• What is around it

• Sun exposure and weather

• Sometimes how hot the object is

• Wind speed, solar loading, foliage

Data, Focus, and Legal Considerations

• You need good data to analyze to make a good assessment of the thermal image

• Even in public safety, your thermal image must be in focus

• Small UAS sensors are fixed focus and automatically focus the image 

• Images can become out of focus by flying too fast, too high, yawing too quickly, or flying through high humidity or fog

• Manufacturers' guidelines for set-up and operations can be critical for court

Ford Principles

Focus: The thermal image must be in focus. It impacts the ability to recognize a target and your measurement ability. 

Range: It must be in the correct temp range. sUAS sensors can measure objects ranging from -20F to 1022F, but not within a single range 

Distance: You need to be close enough to the target

The parameters in FORD cannot be changed/fixed in post-processing: 

Range (Gain)

• There are two ranges in FLIR sUAS cameras

- High Gain -13F to 275F

- Low Gain -30F to 1022F

• Measuring anything above the highest or lowest limits, the camera will extrapolate the temperature

• Minimum margarine of errors

- High Gain +/-5%

- Low Gain +/- 20%

• Auto Range is supposed to automatically select the appropriate range setting- USE WITH CAUTION

• The best Practice is to use the smallest range available to the scene being imaged. This means the lowest margin of error without going into saturation

• There is no on-scene indication if you are using the wrong gain setting

Isotherms

• A measurement tool that highlights areas of the same thermal radiation intensity

• Isotherms can sometimes cause the background in the image and the object to blend in together if they are close enough to the same temperature

Flat Field Correction (FFC)

• Also known as a “Non-Uniformity Correction (NUC)”

• Updates the pixel calibration to improve the quality of the image

• A blue box or “FCC Calibrated” will appear at the upper right-facing corner of the image

• FCC is also performed automatically based on elapsed time and during changes in the temperature

• Should be performed upon start-up, at mission altitude, and before the image or video being taken. 

Search recommendations

For a missing person who is lying down, these flight parameters are recommended:

• Camera angle: -90 degrees. This makes the person a bigger object on your screen.

• Altitude:

- 70m when viewing the thermal camera or picture-in-picture

- 60m when viewing the visual camera

- This height is best for detection and recognition, but 20m will enable identification. It is not recommended to search at 20m though because it will take longer to search large areas and 20m can be an unsafe distance to ground obstacles.

For a missing person who is standing up, these flight parameters are recommended:

• Camera angle: -30o

• This makes the person a bigger object on your screen. You’ll see their full height, rather than their shoulder width.

- Altitude: 50m

- You may not be able to recognize or identify at this height if viewing only a visual camera. For a visual camera, recognition requires a 20m altitude and identification requires sub-10 m altitudes – but both altitudes would slow down your search and are unsafe distances to ground obstacles. You will still be able to detect the missing person at 50m with a visual camera.

Important Notice

Please take these recommendations with the following caveats in mind:

• These calculations were made by using a Mavic 2EA and a smart controller screen.

• The “missing person” in these images is 5ft11 and weighs 105kg; if your missing person is smaller than that, you may want to fly lower to compensate for a smaller search object.

• The thermal images were taken when the air temperature was 5oC and the missing person’s body temperature was 36.9oC (recorded by the Tympanic method); if the temperature difference is less than this, you may want to fly lower to compensate for less contrast.

• The terrain in these images is flat with vegetation at 10.3cm tall; if you are searching over hilly or mountainous terrain and/or taller vegetation, you may want to fly lower to compensate for this background clutter.

• Flying speeds will also impact performance; flying too fast will cause you to miss your missing person, no matter the number of pixels. We recommend 5m/s (airspeed), it is steady and most efficient for the motors to get the best possible battery endurance.

ΔT, Thermal Equilibrium, and Emissivity

The term Delta T (ΔT) is in science, the difference of temperatures between two measuring points. The temperature differs either in time and/or position:

• Things that impact ΔT

- Cloud Cover

- Precipitation

- Solar Loading (amount of solar absorbed)

Thermal Equilibrium:

• The Condition that exists between two objects when they have reached the same temperature and heat energy no longer flows between them.

• When there is no heat transfer between two objects you will not be able to see any thermal patterns or identify objects

Emissivity:

• The efficiency by which an object absorbs and emits thermal energy

• Humans have a high Emissivity and give off a lot of thermal energy

• Shiny metals have a low Emissivity

• All surfaces have three properties when exposed to infrared radiation. They may absorb some, some may be reflected, and some may be transmitted or allowed to pass through the material. (Glass and solar panels will not give you an accurate temperature reading.)

Legal

Best Practices for Successful Prosecutions:

• Aerial data collection, Even with infrared, can easily be challenged in court like all other evidence from an incident.

• We don’t want evidence suppressed just because there was doubt about the accuracy of how it was collected and/or documented. 

• We can easily get ourselves into trouble by inadvertently using words like “Hot” or “temperature” to describe what we see. (Thermal cameras do not read temperature but the thermal radiation that an object is giving off) 

• Never use the word “calibration” when referencing any sUAS infrared imaging

• A “thermal anomaly” is something within the FOV that is not consistent with the scene and the surroundings. 

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SAR Best Practices

Primary Rolls:

• Hasty Search: 

- Search high-probability areas first.

- Areas that are hard to access from the ground.

- Grid search.

• Support Roll:

- UAS can support ground teams in many ways—ambient light, dropping needed supplies, and cellular service. 

• IC Overwatch Roll:

- IC can see what is going on with the drone and the scene.

Drones are becoming a valuable tool in Search and Rescue (SAR) missions. Here's how lost person theory and search theory can be applied when flying drones for first responders:

Lost Person Theory:

• Understanding motivations: Consider factors that might influence the missing person's behavior. Are they a seasoned hiker or a disoriented child? Were they injured? Knowing their experience level and potential limitations helps predict where they might be.

• Survival priorities: In harsh environments, people will seek shelter, warmth, and water. Drones can prioritize searching near bodies of water, caves, or dense foliage depending on the climate.

• Circle of confusion: Lost individuals often wander in circles, especially when disoriented. A drone's wide aerial view can help identify these circular paths.

Search Theory:

• Grid Search: This systematic method involves dividing the search area into smaller grids and searching them thoroughly. Drones with automated flight paths can efficiently cover large grids, pinpointing areas that require further ground search.

• Contour Search: Searchers follow terrain features like streams or ridgelines where lost people might travel. Drones can provide a quick overview of the terrain, guiding ground teams to high-probability areas.

• Radius Search: This method starts at the last known location and expands outward in concentric circles. Drones can rapidly scan these circles, identifying potential clues or narrowing the search area.

Drone Advantages for SAR:

• Cover large areas quickly: Drones reach remote areas inaccessible by foot and provide a broader view than ground teams.

• Thermal imaging: Drones equipped with thermal cameras can detect body heat even in low-light conditions, significantly increasing the chance of finding someone in hiding or unconscious.

• Real-time data: Live video feeds from drones help incident commanders make informed decisions and adjust search strategies as needed.

While drones are powerful tools, they don't replace traditional SAR methods.  Effective missions require proper training,  coordination between drone pilots and ground teams, and adherence to safety regulations.

Aviation best practiced

• CRM Crew Resource Management: The effective use of all available resources. Have a “mise en pou” (everything in place) next to you before you start. 

• TEM Threat and Error Management: The process of detecting and responding to threats and errors to prevent safety from being compromised.

• ADM Aeronautical Decision-Making: A mental process used by pilots to determine the best course of action in a given situation.

These aviation best practices are crucial for safe and effective drone first responder missions:

Crew Resource Management (CRM):

• Communication: Clear and concise communication is essential. Before, during, and after the flight, the drone pilot should communicate effectively with the incident commander, ground crew, and any other air assets involved.

• Teamwork: Successful missions require teamwork. The pilot should brief the team on the mission plan, potential hazards, and emergency procedures.

• Situational Awareness: The pilot must maintain constant awareness of the airspace, weather conditions, obstacles, and the location of ground personnel.

• Decision Making: The pilot should be able to make sound decisions based on real-time information. This includes delegating tasks, prioritizing objectives, and recognizing the need to abort a mission if conditions become unsafe.

Threat and Error Management (TEM):

• Hazard Identification: Before each flight, the pilot should conduct a thorough pre-flight inspection, identify potential hazards in the operating area (power lines, structures, wildlife), and assess weather risks.

• Risk Mitigation: Once hazards are identified, the pilot should develop strategies to mitigate them. This might involve altering flight paths, maintaining safe distances, or having contingency plans in case of malfunctions.

• Error Prevention: Double-checking equipment, following checklists, and practicing emergency procedures can minimize errors during flight.

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM):

• Gathering Information: Before takeoff, the pilot should gather all available information about the mission, including weather forecasts, airspace restrictions, and the location of other air traffic.

• Evaluating Options: Based on the gathered information, the pilot should assess different mission strategies and choose the one that offers the highest level of safety and effectiveness.

• Risk Management: Continually assess risks throughout the mission. If new hazards arise or conditions change, be prepared to adapt the plan or abort the flight if necessary.

• Decision Implementation & Review: Execute the chosen flight plan with CRM principles in mind. After the mission, take time to review the decisions made and identify areas for improvement.

By following these best practices, drone pilots can significantly enhance the safety and efficacy of first responder missions, ultimately saving lives and minimizing risks.

FAA

• Link to FAA/UAS

TFR

• Link to current TFR's

SGI

• SGI Form- UAS-SGI waiver approval request form